Factors that influence a career choice in primary care among medical students from high-, middle-, and low-income countries: a systematic review / Factores que influyen en la elección de una carrera en atención primaria entre estudiantes de medicina de países de ingresos altos, medianos y bajos: una revisión sistemática

OBJECTIVE: To determine which factors influence a medical student's decision to choose a career in primary care; and to establish if these factors are similar or different among students in high-, middle- and low-income countries. METHODS: An extensive search was done of PubMed, Google Scholar, and Virtual Library of Health for articles on primary care careers published in 2003-2013 in English, Spanish, and/or Portuguese. Initially, 600 records were identified; 74 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility and 55 were selected (42 from high-income countries; 13 from middle- and low-income). These were assessed to identify intrinsic and extrinsic factors that influence career choice among medical students from high-, middle-, and low-income countries. RESULTS: A comparison framework with common and specific factors that influence career choice in primary care among medical students from high-, middle- and low-income was developed. Factors were classified as extrinsic or intrinsic, and as facilitators or barriers. Several factors common to all countries were identified: facilitators were exposure to rural location, role models, working conditions; barriers were low income, prestige, and medical school environment. Some factors specific to middle- and low-income countries were: understanding of rural needs and intellectual challenge. Other factors specific to high-income countries were: attitude towards social problems, voluntary work, influence of family, and length of residency. CONCLUSIONS: Further studies on the subject are needed, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Identifying factors as barriers or facilitators for career choice will promote a better understanding of the reasons behind the shortage of primary care professionals and will contribute to policy building, improved training, and recruitment and retention of these professionals.

OBJETIVO: Determinar los factores que influyen en la decisión de un estudiante de medicina de dedicarse profesionalmente a la atención primaria; y establecer si estos factores son similares o diferentes entre estudiantes de países de ingresos altos, medianos y bajos. MÉTODOS: Se llevó a cabo una extensa búsqueda en PubMed, en Google Académico y en la Biblioteca Virtual en Salud de artículos sobre selección de carrera en atención primaria publicados entre 2003 y 2013 en inglés, español o portugués. Inicialmente, se seleccionaron 600 registros; se evaluó la idoneidad de 74 artículos de texto completo, y de estos se seleccionaron 55 (42 de países de ingresos altos, 13 de países de ingresos medianos y bajos). Se evaluaron los artículos con el objeto de determinar cuáles eran los factores intrínsecos y extrínsecos que influían en la elección profesional de los estudiantes de medicina de países de ingresos altos, medianos y bajos. RESULTADOS: Se elaboró un marco de comparación de los factores comunes y específicos que influyen en la elección profesional de atención primaria por parte de los estudiantes de medicina de países de ingresos altos, medianos y bajos. Los factores se clasificaron como extrínsecos o intrínsecos, y como facilitadores o barreras. Se determinaron varios factores comunes a todos los países: la exposición a un entorno rural, los modelos a imitar y las condiciones laborales actuaban como facilitadores; los ingresos bajos, el escaso prestigio y el entorno propio de las facultades de medicina actuaban como barreras. Algunos factores específicos de países de ingresos medianos y bajos fueron la comprensión de las necesidades rurales y el desafío intelectual. Otros factores específicos de países de ingresos altos fueron la actitud hacia los problemas sociales, el haber trabajado como voluntario, la influencia de la familia y la duración del período de residencia. CONCLUSIONES: Se requieren nuevos estudios sobre el tema, especialmente en países de ingresos medianos y bajos. Determinar si estos factores actúan como barreras o facilitadores de la elección profesional ayudará a comprender los motivos de la escasez de profesionales de atención primaria y contribuirá a la elaboración de políticas, a mejorar la capacitación, y a captar a estos profesionales y garantizar su permanencia.

Factors that influence a career choice in primary care among medical students from high-, middle-, and low-income countries: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To determine which factors influence a medical student's decision to choose a career in primary care; and to establish if these factors are similar or different among students in high-, middle- and low-income countries. METHODS: An extensive search was done of PubMed, Google Scholar, and Virtual Library of Health for articles on primary care careers published in 2003-2013 in English, Spanish, and/or Portuguese. Initially, 600 records were identified; 74 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility and 55 were selected (42 from high-income countries; 13 from middle- and low-income). These were assessed to identify intrinsic and extrinsic factors that influence career choice among medical students from high-, middle-, and low-income countries. RESULTS: A comparison framework with common and specific factors that influence career choice in primary care among medical students from high-, middle- and low-income was developed. Factors were classified as extrinsic or intrinsic, and as facilitators or barriers. Several factors common to all countries were identified: facilitators were exposure to rural location, role models, working conditions; barriers were low income, prestige, and medical school environment. Some factors specific to middle- and low-income countries were: understanding of rural needs and intellectual challenge. Other factors specific to high-income countries were: attitude towards social problems, voluntary work, influence of family, and length of residency. CONCLUSIONS: Further studies on the subject are needed, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Identifying factors as barriers or facilitators for career choice will promote a better understanding of the reasons behind the shortage of primary care professionals and will contribute to policy building, improved training, and recruitment and retention of these professionals.

[International financing for cooperation to develop health in Latin America and the Caribbean]. / El financiamiento internacional para la cooperación al desarrollo de la salud de América Latina y el Caribe.

The purpose of this study is (a) to examine the ways in which Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) have benefited from increases in international development assistance for health (DAH) at the global level and whether the trend observed after the Millennium Summit has also applied to the Region; (b) to determine whether there are differences in the distribution of this assistance, based on the gross per capita income of each country; (c) to identify the possible effects of the 2008 international financial crisis on official bilateral assistance; and (d) to compare trends in public health expenditure in relation to DAH before and after the Millennium Summit. The study has found that DAH in LAC follows a very different pattern than in other regions of the world. The period from 1997 to 2008 was one of fluctuating stagnation, with average annual disbursements of US$ 1 200 million. Multilateral financial institutions accounted for 79% of the average disbursements in the upper-middle income countries between 2002 and 2008, while official bilateral assistance held the greatest share (61%) in the low- and lower-middle income countries. Bilateral assistance grew at an annual rate of 13% during this period, but in the year after the crisis, disbursements fell to US$ 20 million. Sixty-four percent of bilateral assistance came from the United States, Spain, and Canada, with 29% of it being directed to HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases. After the Millennium Summit DAH channeled to governments decreased 30% in the period 2001-2006, and its share of public health expenditure in the region was 0.3% for the same period, with an equally marginal proportion in relation to total health expenditure for 2008 (0.37%; US$ 2 per capita). The study concludes that after the Millennium Summit, DAH in LAC did not grow nor did it equal the trends prior to 2000, and public health expenditure followed its historical growth trend, without further increases in relation to the regional gross domestic product. Given these realities and the fact that LAC is the world's most unequal region, but not its poorest, it is imperative to reconsider the concepts, management, and delivery of cooperation in the development of health, using innovative approaches and alternative financing mechanisms that respond more effectively to the realities of the region.

[International health and new forms of association: the Multipartite Dialogue and the Partners Forum]. / Salud internacional y nuevas formas de asociación: el Diálogo Multipartito y el Foro de Socios.

Two cooperative public health initiatives involving representatives of civil society, academia, and the public and private sectors of the Americas are described and analyzed. One of them-the Multipartite Dialogue-promotes an intersectoral approach in its broadest sense, and the other-the Partners Forum-while it represents an institutional initiative, pays particular attention to chronic noncommunicable diseases. Both are a call to action for governments and offer alternatives to tackle regional health problems more effectively.

El financiamiento internacional para la cooperación al desarrollo de la salud de América Latina y el Caribe / International financing for cooperation to develop health in Latin America and the Caribbean

El presente estudio tuvo como objetivos a) conocer en qué medida América Latina y el Caribe (ALC) se vio beneficiada por los aumentos de la asistencia internacional para el desarrollo de la salud (ADS) a nivel mundial y si la tendencia observada después de la Cumbre del Milenio, también fue una tendencia observada en la Región, b) determinar si existen diferencias en la distribución de esta asistencia, según el ingreso bruto per cápita de los países, c) identificar el posible efecto de la crisis financiera internacional de 2008 en la ayuda oficial bilateral y d) comparar las tendencias que tuvo el gasto público salud con respecto a la ADS antes y después de la Cumbre del Milenio Se encontró que la ADS en ALC sigue un curso muy diferente al de otras regiones del mundo. A partir de 1997 se entra en un período de estancamiento fluctuante que se extiende hasta 2008, con desembolsos promedios anuales de US$ 1 200 millones. La banca multilateral tuvo una participación de 79 por ciento de los desembolsos promedios entre 2002 y 2008 en los países de ingreso medio alto, mientras que la ayuda oficial bilateral registró la mayor participación (61 por ciento) en los países de ingresos medios bajos y bajos. En este período la ayuda bilateral tiene un crecimiento anual de 13 por ciento, pero en el año posterior a la crisis los desembolsos caen en US$ 20 millones. El 64 por ciento de la ayuda bilateral provino de Estados Unidos, España y Canadá, y el 29 por ciento de la misma se destinó a VIH/Sida y enfermedades de transmisión sexual. Después de la Cumbre del Milenio la ADS canalizada hacia los gobiernos disminuyó en un 30 por ciento entre 2001-2006 y su participación con respecto al gasto público en salud regional fue de 0,30 por ciento en el mismo período, con una proporción igualmente marginal con respecto al gasto total en salud para 2008 (0,37 por ciento; US$ 2 per cápita). Se concluye que después de la Cumbre del Milenio la ADS en ALC no creció ni logró igualar las tendencias antes del 2000 y el gasto público en salud siguió su tendencia de crecimiento histórico, sin mayores incrementos con respecto al producto interno bruto regional. Frente a este panorama y por ser ALC la región más desigual pero no la más pobre del mundo, resulta imperativo replantearse las formas de pensar, conducir y entregar la cooperación para el desarrollo de la salud con enfoques innovadores y mecanismos alternativos de financiamiento que respondan más y mejor a las realidades de la región.

The purpose of this study is (a) to examine the ways in which Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) have benefited from increases in international development assistance for health (DAH) at the global level and whether the trend observed after the Millennium Summit has also applied to the Region; (b) to determine whether there are differences in the distribution of this assistance, based on the gross per capita income of each country; (c) to identify the possible effects of the 2008 international financial crisis on official bilateral assistance; and (d) to compare trends in public health expenditure in relation to DAH before and after the Millennium Summit. The study has found that DAH in LAC follows a very different pattern than in other regions of the world. The period from 1997 to 2008 was one of fluctuating stagnation, with average annual disbursements of US$ 1 200 million. Multilateral financial institutions accounted for 79 percent of the average disbursements in the upper-middle income countries between 2002 and 2008, while official bilateral assistance held the greatest share (61 percent) in the low- and lower-middle income countries. Bilateral assistance grew at an annual rate of 13 percent during this period, but in the year after the crisis, disbursements fell to US$ 20 million. Sixty-four percent of bilateral assistance came from the United States, Spain, and Canada, with 29 percent of it being directed to HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases. After the Millennium Summit DAH channeled to governments decreased 30 percent in the period 2001-2006, and its share of public health expenditure in the region was 0.3 percent for the same period, with an equally marginal proportion in relation to total health expenditure for 2008 (0.37 percent; US$ 2 per capita). The study concludes that after the Millennium Summit, DAH in LAC did not grow nor did it equal the trends prior to 2000, and public health expenditure followed its historical growth trend, without further increases in relation to the regional gross domestic product. Given these realities and the fact that LAC is the world's most unequal region, but not its poorest, it is imperative to reconsider the concepts, management, and delivery of cooperation in the development of health, using innovative approaches and alternative financing mechanisms that respond more effectively to the realities of the region.

Salud internacional y nuevas formas de asociación: el Diálogo Multipartito y el Foro de Socios / International health and new forms of association: the Multipartite Dialogue and the Partners Forum

Se describen y analizan dos iniciativas de cooperación en salud pública en las cuales participan representantes de la sociedad civil, la academia, el sector público y sector privado de las Américas. Una de ellas -el Diálogo Multipartito- promueve la aproximación intersectorial en su más amplio concepto, mientras que la otra -el Foro de Socios- si bien representa una iniciativa institucional, asigna mayor atención a las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles. Ambas constituyen un llamado a la acción para los gobiernos y ofrecen alternativas para enfrentar más efectivamente los problemas de la salud regional.

Two cooperative public health initiatives involving representatives of civil society, academia, and the public and private sectors of the Americas are described and analyzed. One of them-the Multipartite Dialogue-promotes an intersectoral approach in its broadest sense, and the other-the Partners Forum-while it represents an institutional initiative, pays particular attention to chronic noncommunicable diseases. Both are a call to action for governments and offer alternatives to tackle regional health problems more effectively.

La ayuda oficial al desarollo en salud en el Perú / The official development assistance in health in Peru

En este artículo se revisa la ayuda oficial al desarrollo a través de la cooperación internacional, particularmente en el campo de la salud, a nivel regional y en el Perú. Se describe como ha sido su evolución desde 1995, cuales son las fuentes cooperantes, que proyectos han sido y se están financiando así como las áreas que reciben mayor cooperación.Se hace un análisis de la experiencia obtenida por el Ministerio de Salud del Perú y cuales son las lecciones aprendidas. Finalmente se evalúan las tendencias de la cooperación internacional al desarrollo.

This article reviews the official development assistance through international cooperation, particularly in the health field, both regionally and in Peru. It has been described as its evolution since 1995, which are cooperating sources, whichprojects have been and are being financed as well as areas that receive more cooperation. An analysis is made of the experience gained by the Ministry of Health of Peru, and what are the lessons learned. Finally assesses the trends in international development cooperation.